The lion is often symbolized as the king of the savanna, suggesting an invulnerability that is often misunderstood. While lions are apex predators at the top of the food chain, their lives are not without peril, particularly for the young and vulnerable. A lion’s mortality is determined by complex factors, including competition with other species, intense conflict within their social structure, and the significant impact of human activity.
The Apex Predator Status of Lions
An apex predator is defined as a species that has no natural predators in its ecosystem, meaning no other animal routinely hunts it for food. The African lion fits this definition, as a healthy, adult lion is not a regular prey item for any other creature on the savanna. Their large size, collective hunting strategy in prides, and sharp weaponry make them too formidable to be targeted by other carnivores.
The lion’s dominance ensures that it is a hypercarnivore, preying primarily on large ungulates like wildebeest, zebra, and buffalo. This top-tier position stabilizes the food web by regulating herbivore populations. However, the apex designation only applies to the fully capable adult, and it does not mean the lion is immune to being killed by other animals under specific, opportunistic circumstances.
Natural Threats to Vulnerable Lions
While not true predators, certain large animals pose a lethal threat to lions that are young, old, injured, or otherwise compromised. Spotted hyenas are direct competitors for food and will opportunistically kill a lone lion or cub if they significantly outnumber it. A large hyena clan can overwhelm even a sub-adult lion in a confrontation over a carcass. These deaths are not acts of predation but rather defensive or competitive kills that capitalize on a moment of lion weakness or vulnerability.
Herbivores, which lions routinely hunt, become dangerous threats when defending themselves or their territory. African elephants and hippopotamuses are responsible for trampling or fatally injuring lions, especially when the cats attempt to prey on their young. Nile crocodiles also represent a major risk, often attacking lions as they cross rivers and pulling them underwater to drown them.
Intraspecific Conflict and Cub Mortality
The single greatest source of natural mortality for young lions comes from other lions, a phenomenon known as intraspecific conflict. Lion cubs face low survival rates, estimated to be less than 50% in many regions. The most devastating threat to a cub’s life is infanticide, which occurs when a new coalition of male lions takes over a pride.
These new males systematically kill the cubs sired by the previous coalition. By eliminating the existing offspring, the lionesses cease lactation and return to estrus sooner, allowing the new males to quickly sire their own cubs. This practice accounts for a significant portion of cub deaths, with estimates suggesting that up to 25% of cubs may fall victim to infanticide. Additionally, adult male lions frequently engage in fatal fights over pride dominance and territory, which can result in the death of one or both combatants.
Human Impact on Lion Survival
The largest cause of death for adult lions is human activity, which bypasses the lion’s apex status. In certain monitored populations, humans have been found to cause as much as 78% of all lion deaths. This mortality is not traditional predation but stems from a combination of conflict, direct killing, and habitat disruption.
Retaliatory killings are common, occurring when lions prey on livestock and are subsequently poisoned or shot by herders protecting their livelihoods. Poaching also contributes significantly, both through targeted killing for the illegal trade of body parts and through unintentional snaring set for bushmeat. Furthermore, legal trophy hunting has historically accounted for a large proportion of male lion mortality in some areas, which destabilizes pride structures and indirectly increases cub mortality by triggering male takeovers.