Sperm donation is a regulated process where a man provides reproductive cells to assist individuals or couples in achieving pregnancy through assisted reproductive technology (ART). This process is primarily facilitated through cryobanks, specialized facilities that recruit donors, screen samples, and store the genetic material. The need for sperm banks is driven by single women, lesbian couples, and heterosexual couples where the male partner has infertility issues or a high risk of passing on a genetic disorder. By centralizing the process, these banks ensure that donated sperm meets strict safety and quality standards for use in fertility treatments.
Eligibility and Rigorous Screening
The process of becoming a sperm donor is highly selective, with only a small fraction of applicants accepted due to rigorous screening standards. Initial criteria typically require applicants to be within a specific age range, often 18 to 39 or 44, and possess a minimum educational background, such as a college degree or enrollment. Physical requirements can also be part of the initial screen, with some banks having preferences for minimum height or a healthy body mass index (BMI).
Applicants navigate a multi-stage screening process beginning with an extensive review of their medical and genetic history, including a detailed questionnaire about their family’s health. This is followed by a comprehensive physical examination and mandatory infectious disease testing for pathogens like HIV, Hepatitis B and C, syphilis, and chlamydia. Expanded genetic carrier screening checks for conditions such as Cystic Fibrosis or Tay-Sachs disease, ensuring the donor does not carry genetic markers that pose a risk to offspring. Finally, many programs require a psychological evaluation to assess the donor’s understanding of the long-term implications of donation.
The Collection and Processing Procedure
Once accepted, the donor commits to providing samples regularly, often one to two times per week. The sample is collected in a private, clinical setting, almost exclusively through masturbation into a sterile cup, following a recommended period of abstinence from ejaculation, typically two to three days. The use of lubricants or condoms is avoided as these can be toxic to the sperm cells.
Immediately following collection, the sample is sent for laboratory analysis to evaluate its quality, focusing on sperm count, motility (movement), and morphology (shape). For a sample to be accepted, it must meet high standards, including maintaining a minimum number of motile cells after being thawed. Accepted samples are mixed with a cryoprotectant solution, which prevents damage during freezing, and transferred into small vials or straws. These vials are then frozen and placed into long-term storage in tanks of liquid nitrogen at -196°C.
All donated samples undergo a mandatory quarantine period of at least six months. At the end of this period, the donor must return to the clinic for a final round of infectious disease re-testing. This re-testing ensures the donor was not in the early, undetectable stages of an infection when the samples were initially collected, providing a final layer of safety before vials are released.
Compensation and Legal Agreements
Donors receive financial compensation for their time, effort, and compliance with the demanding screening and donation schedule. Payment is typically structured on a per-qualified sample basis, meaning compensation is only provided for samples that successfully pass all quality and testing standards. While the exact amount varies between cryobanks, it is intended to compensate for the significant time commitment and frequent clinic visits required.
A core legal component is the contract, which requires the donor to formally relinquish all parental rights and responsibilities to any children conceived from the donation. This legal agreement is designed to protect the donor from future claims for child support and to ensure the intended parents maintain full legal custody. Donors generally choose between an anonymous donation, where their identity is never revealed, and an ID Release or Open donation, where the resulting child has the option to request the donor’s identifying information upon reaching adulthood.
Storage and Use by Recipients
Once the six-month quarantine is complete and re-testing is confirmed negative, the vials of frozen sperm are moved into permanent inventory for long-term cryopreservation. The sperm bank maintains a detailed inventory management system, tracking each vial’s location and the number of families that have used the donor’s material, often adhering to regulatory limits on the number of families per donor. At the sustained temperature of liquid nitrogen, the sperm can be stored indefinitely without degradation in quality.
Recipients (individuals or couples seeking to conceive) select a donor by reviewing non-identifying profile information provided by the sperm bank. These profiles often include details such as the donor’s physical characteristics, educational background, hobbies, and sometimes audio interviews or handwritten essays. After selection, the frozen sperm is thawed and prepared for use in an assisted reproductive procedure. This is most commonly Intrauterine Insemination (IUI), where the sperm is placed directly into the recipient’s uterus, or In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), where the sperm is combined with an egg outside the body.