Science builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. For organizational purposes, scientific knowledge is typically divided into three overarching branches: the Natural Sciences, the Social Sciences, and the Formal Sciences. Each branch employs distinct yet interconnected methodologies to explore different facets of existence, from the fundamental laws of nature to the complexities of human interaction and the abstract rules of logic.
Investigating the Physical and Living World
The Natural Sciences focus on the study of the rules that govern the natural world, encompassing all physical and biological aspects of the universe. This branch relies on empirical evidence, where knowledge is derived from observation, measurement, and testable hypotheses about natural phenomena. Researchers in this area aim to describe, predict, and understand the mechanisms behind natural phenomena. Natural Science is broadly divided into two major components: the Physical Sciences and the Life Sciences.
Physical Sciences investigate non-living systems and include disciplines such as physics, which studies matter, energy, and their interactions, and chemistry, which analyzes the composition and properties of substances. Astronomy and Earth science, which respectively examine celestial bodies and the planet’s structure, are also core parts of this category. Conversely, the Life Sciences, often referred to as biology, are dedicated to the study of living organisms, their evolutionary history, and their interactions with the environment. This group includes specialized fields like ecology and zoology.
Studying Human Behavior and Society
The Social Sciences are devoted to the systematic study of human society, relationships, institutions, and behavior, using scientific methodology to examine the social and cultural aspects of human life. This field seeks to understand and explain human actions and societal structures across different groups and time periods. While relying on observation and data analysis, the subjects of study—human beings—introduce a layer of complexity and variability not found in the physical world. Consequently, social scientists often employ a combination of quantitative statistical analysis and qualitative interpretive research methods.
Disciplines such as psychology explore the human mind and individual behavior, while sociology examines social behavior, society, and social change. Other prominent sub-disciplines include economics, which analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth, and political science, which focuses on systems of governance and political activity. Anthropology, the study of human beings in aspects ranging from their biology to their culture, also forms a core part of this branch. The insights gained from these studies are frequently used to inform public policy and address societal challenges.
The Abstract Tools of Scientific Inquiry
The Formal Sciences represent a distinct branch, concerned with the study of formal systems, abstract structures, and the rules that govern them. Unlike the Natural and Social Sciences, this branch does not rely on empirical evidence or observation of the physical world to determine truth. Instead, its truths are established through deduction, starting from a set of axioms and definitions to prove theorems. This makes the Formal Sciences a priori disciplines, meaning their knowledge is independent of experience.
Mathematics is the most prominent example of a formal science, providing the language and framework for quantitative analysis across all other scientific fields. Logic, which studies the principles of valid reasoning and inference, is equally foundational. Other disciplines include theoretical computer science, which investigates the fundamental limits of computation, and statistics, which develops methods for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data. These abstract tools are not just academic exercises; they provide the means necessary for the Natural and Social Sciences to model systems, analyze data, and draw robust conclusions about the universe.