Pangea, meaning “all lands,” was the most recent supercontinent, joining nearly all of Earth’s continental crust into a single landmass. Its assembly was complete by the Early Permian Period, approximately 299 million years ago, surrounded by the global ocean Panthalassa. Pangea’s existence was transient, and its fragmentation began around the end of the Paleozoic Era and the start of the Mesozoic Era. This breakup was driven by plate tectonics, specifically mantle convection, where heat flow within the Earth’s mantle creates currents that slowly move the rigid plates of the crust across the planet’s surface.
The Initial Split of Pangea
The initial fracturing began in the Late Triassic Period, approximately 200 million years ago, marking the first major phase of rifting. This rifting was driven by an upwelling of magma beneath the crust, creating a massive volcanic rift zone. This process is documented by the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), an enormous flood basalt province that spread volcanic rock across four continents as the crust stretched.
The first major rift developed between the landmasses that would become North America and Northwest Africa. As the crust pulled apart, a low-lying basin formed, which was eventually flooded by Panthalassa, initiating the formation of the Central Atlantic Ocean. The newly formed mid-Atlantic ridge continually injected new oceanic crust into the widening gap between the diverging continental fragments. The rifting process was complex, resulting in multiple failed rift arms before the successful opening of the Atlantic basin.
The Rise of Laurasia and Gondwana
The first major outcome of Pangea’s initial breakup was the creation of two successor continents: Laurasia to the north and Gondwana to the south. Laurasia comprised the continental masses that would eventually become North America, Europe, and most of Asia, excluding the Indian subcontinent. Gondwana was larger and comprised future South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and India.
These two immense landmasses were separated by the Tethys Sea, a vast, wedge-shaped body of water. This prominent marine seaway formed during the Early to Middle Jurassic, extending between the northern and southern continents. The Tethys Sea maintained a connection to the global ocean, playing a significant role in distributing warm water and regulating global climate. Laurasia and Gondwana were unstable configurations destined for further fragmentation.
The Southern Breakup
The fragmentation of Gondwana began in the Early Jurassic Period, around 180 million years ago, proceeding in a complex, multi-stage process. The first major split separated the western half (Africa and South America) from the eastern half (India, Australia, and Antarctica). In the Middle Jurassic, the Indian landmass, still connected to Madagascar, began to rift away from the combined Australia-Antarctica block.
This movement initiated India’s rapid journey northward across the Tethys Sea. The South Atlantic Ocean began to open later, during the Cretaceous Period, as South America pulled away from Africa. This process unzipped the continents from south to north, creating the distinct, narrow shape of the southern Atlantic basin. The final major split occurred during the Paleogene Period, when Australia separated from Antarctica and began its northward drift.
The Northern Breakup
The fragmentation of Laurasia primarily unfolded during the Cretaceous Period and continued into the Cenozoic Era. The widening of the North Atlantic Ocean was a defining event, driven by the continued divergence of North America from the Eurasian landmass. This separation culminated in the opening of the Norwegian Sea approximately 60 to 55 million years ago, fully separating North America and Greenland from Northern Europe.
The eastern portion of Laurasia (Europe and Asia) remained largely contiguous. However, the northern movement of the African and Indian plates created profound consequences for the Eurasian margin. The most dramatic result was the collision of the northward-racing Indian plate with the Asian continent, beginning around 50 million years ago. This continental collision crumpled the crust, closing the Tethys Sea and creating the Himalayan mountain range, completing the formation of the modern continental configuration.