Kohl is a dark powder applied around the eyes, used primarily as a cosmetic to define and darken the lash line. It has been worn for thousands of years across North Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia, where it also served practical purposes: reducing sun glare, repelling insects, and, according to traditional belief, protecting eye health and warding off evil. Today it remains widely used both as a cultural practice and as a beauty product, though traditional formulations carry serious lead-safety concerns.
Cosmetic Use: Defining the Eyes
Kohl’s most common purpose, past and present, is as eye makeup. Applied along the upper and lower lash lines, it creates a dark, smoky frame around the eyes that makes the whites appear brighter and the irises more defined. In ancient Egypt, both men and women wore it daily. Green eye paints made from copper minerals dominated in predynastic times, but black kohl largely replaced green around the start of the dynastic period and has remained the standard ever since.
The powder is traditionally applied with a thin stick called a mirwed, usually made from smooth wood like eucalyptus. The technique is specific: you dip the stick into the kohl container, twist it several times, tap off the excess, then slide it along the lash line between closed eyelids in a back-and-forth motion, drawing outward from the inner corner toward the temple. This ritual application is still practiced in many households across the Middle East and South Asia.
Sun Protection in Harsh Climates
Before modern sunglasses existed, kohl served a functional role for people living in desert environments. The dark pigment applied liberally around the eyes helped reduce glare from intense sunlight reflecting off sand and pale stone. It was also believed to provide cooling relief from heat and to repel flies, which were a constant source of eye irritation and infection in arid climates. While the cosmetic effect is well documented, the degree of actual UV protection remains a matter of tradition rather than measured science.
Traditional Medicine and Folk Beliefs
Across many cultures, kohl has been considered medicinal. Traditional practitioners used it to treat or prevent eye conditions, and various plant-based ingredients were added to enhance its supposed healing properties. Formulations sometimes included camphor, menthol, fennel extract, saffron, and almond oil, all believed to improve weak eyesight or fight infections like conjunctivitis. The original mineral base was stibnite, an antimony ore, which was considered therapeutically beneficial.
In Indian households, applying kajal (the regional name for kohl) to babies and young children is a deeply rooted ritual. Elders believe it makes the eyes appear bigger and brighter, improves eyesight, and wards off the “evil eye,” a form of spiritual harm thought to come from envious or admiring gazes. Pediatricians note that the practice is cultural rather than medical, with no evidence supporting the claimed eye benefits.
Kohl, Kajal, and Surma: Different Names, Same Product
The terms kohl, kajal, and surma all refer to essentially the same type of eye preparation, with regional variation in name and recipe. Kohl is the Arabic term most widely recognized internationally. Kajal is the term used across India and parts of Southeast Asia. Surma is common in Pakistan and parts of Central Asia. All three describe finely ground dark powder meant for the eyes, though homemade versions differ from commercial ones.
About 80% of kajal users in Indian surveys report using homemade versions, which are typically made by collecting soot from the flame of an oil lamp and mixing it with oil or a simple eye ointment. This carbon-based homemade version is chemically quite different from traditional stone-ground kohl, which is mineral-based. Commercial kohl products, meanwhile, vary enormously in composition and safety.
What Traditional Kohl Is Made Of
The earliest kohl formulations used stibnite, an antimony-based mineral with a grey-black, shiny appearance. Over time, stibnite was gradually replaced by galena, a lead sulfide ore that looks almost identical but is far more toxic. Ancient Egyptian kohls also contained wax, fatty matter, resins, and water-soluble gums to bind the powder into a paste. Some specimens included more exotic minerals, and recent analysis has shown the recipes were more chemically diverse than researchers previously assumed.
Modern laboratory testing of commercially available kohl products paints a concerning picture. One study found arsenic in 90% of samples, cadmium in 65%, and lead contamination in 40%. Both iron and sodium appeared in nearly all samples tested. The composition varies widely by brand and source, making it difficult to know what any given product contains without chemical analysis.
Lead Content and Health Risks
The most serious concern with traditional kohl is lead. According to the FDA, lead in the form of lead sulfide sometimes accounts for more than half the total weight of kohl products. One product linked to lead poisoning in an infant was found to be 82.6% lead by weight. These are not trace amounts.
Lead exposure from kohl is particularly dangerous for children. High levels of lead in the blood can cause anemia, kidney damage, and neurological harm including seizures, coma, and death. Even at relatively low levels, chronic exposure leads to learning and behavior problems. The CDC considers a blood lead level of 5 micrograms per deciliter in children the threshold for public health action, and regular kohl use can push levels well above that.
The FDA treats lead-based kohl as an unsafe, unapproved color additive. Products labeled as kohl, kajal, surma, tiro, tozali, or kwalli are flagged for detention when imported into the United States. This does not mean every product sold under these names contains lead, but the risk is high enough that U.S. regulators consider the category broadly dangerous. Modern “kohl” eyeliners sold by mainstream cosmetics brands in Western markets are typically reformulated with safe pigments like iron oxides and carbon black, bearing little chemical resemblance to the traditional mineral product.
Choosing Safer Alternatives
If you want the look of kohl without the lead risk, commercial eyeliner pencils and gel liners labeled “kohl” from regulated cosmetics companies are the simplest option. These products use approved colorants and undergo safety testing. The key distinction is between products manufactured under cosmetic safety regulations and traditional, unregulated kohl imported from markets where lead-based formulas are still common.
Homemade carbon-soot kajal avoids the lead problem entirely since it contains no mineral ore, but it is not sterile. Applying any unregulated substance to the delicate tissue around the eyes carries infection risk, particularly for infants whose immune systems are still developing. If the cultural practice matters to you, a small dot on the forehead or behind the ear, a common alternative already practiced in many families, avoids direct contact with the eyes altogether.