Symbolic communication is a fundamental human capacity built on the power of representation. It is the ability to use something—a sound, a gesture, or a mark—to stand for an object or an idea, with no natural or intrinsic link between the two. This system allows individuals to share complex thoughts and concepts that are not physically present, moving into the realm of the abstract. This process requires a collective agreement that a specific form will consistently denote a particular meaning. The flexible nature of this mode underpins virtually all human culture, allowing for the creation of vast systems of knowledge and social structure.
Defining the Arbitrary Symbol
The core mechanism of symbolic communication is its arbitrariness: the physical form of a symbol is disconnected from the concept it represents. For instance, the letters and sounds that form the English word “dog” have no inherent qualities or resemblance to the actual animal. This relationship, termed the signifier (the word’s form) and the signified (the concept), is purely a matter of convention.
The meaning of an arbitrary symbol is not fixed by nature but is assigned by the collective agreement of a group of users. This social convention makes language a cultural construct, as different communities assign entirely different symbols to the same concept. The arbitrary nature allows for immense flexibility and abstraction, enabling communication about things that are intangible, hypothetical, or non-existent. This fluid relationship also means that symbolic meanings can change over time as cultural contexts evolve.
Distinguishing Symbolic from Non-Symbolic Communication
Symbolic communication stands apart from other forms of signaling because it lacks a built-in connection between the sign and its meaning. Non-symbolic communication relies on two distinct types of relationships: indexical and iconic.
Indexical signs operate based on a physical or causal connection to the object they represent, acting as a direct pointer. For example, smoke is an index of fire, and a fever is an index of illness.
Iconic signs function through physical resemblance or imitation of the object. A photograph, a realistic painting, or a simple bathroom pictogram are all examples of iconic communication. The sign’s meaning is accessible because it shares a perceivable quality with the concept it represents. Only symbolic communication requires the interpreter to possess external, learned knowledge of an agreed-upon code, demanding abstract thought and cultural transmission to be understood.
Major Symbolic Systems in Human Life
The power of arbitrary symbols is most evident in the complex systems that structure human civilization, with spoken language being the most prominent. Language is an intricate system of arbitrary vocal or written symbols that allows for the communication of complex, abstract ideas and the transmission of culture across generations. The arrangement of words according to grammatical rules, which are themselves conventions, enables the creation of an infinite number of novel sentences and concepts.
Other systems also rely on this arbitrariness. Mathematics, for instance, uses symbols like \(Sigma\) (summation), \(int\) (integral), or the digit ‘5’ to represent abstract concepts, actions, or relations with a high degree of precision. These notations are purely conventional, allowing for the succinct expression and manipulation of complex ideas.
Similarly, a monetary system uses physical or digital tokens—paper notes or account balances—that hold no intrinsic use value. They are symbolically assigned a specific, abstract value through collective social and legal convention. The movement of these symbols communicates economic power, trust, and the transfer of abstract value, demonstrating how shared agreement creates functional reality.
The Development of Symbolic Thought
The capacity for symbolic communication emerges during early childhood, marking a significant milestone in cognitive development. The emergence of symbolic thought is clearly visible in the shift to pretend play, which typically begins around the age of two. This is when a child starts using one object to mentally represent another, such as holding a banana and pretending it is a telephone.
This “as if” behavior demonstrates the child’s growing ability to form mental representations and detach a concept from its physical referent. The symbolic function substage, which occurs between two and four years old, is characterized by the increased use of symbols like words and images to represent objects not physically present. This development is also associated with the acquisition of a “theory of mind”—the understanding that other people have separate thoughts, desires, and beliefs. Recognizing others’ internal mental states is necessary for the child to grasp that symbolic meaning is a shared construction, allowing them to engage in the cultural learning required for symbolic systems.