Ötzi the Iceman is the well-preserved natural mummy of a man who lived over 5,300 years ago during the Copper Age in Europe. His discovery in a melting glacier in the Ötztal Alps in 1991 offered an unprecedented look into the life and death of a prehistoric human. Decades of study on his body, clothing, and equipment provided a wealth of knowledge, but the final moments of his life remained a mystery. Uncovering the contents of his stomach was a scientific endeavor to determine what he ate just before his death.
The Discovery and Preservation of Otzi’s Stomach
The high-altitude environment where Ötzi was found was responsible for his preservation, creating a natural freeze-drying effect that mummified his body. This cold kept his internal organs, including the stomach and its contents, in a state nearly untouched by decay. Initially, however, researchers struggled to locate the stomach, which led to the early, incorrect belief that it was empty.
It was not until 2009 that a CT scan finally revealed the stomach, unexpectedly tucked up high under his rib cage behind the lungs. This displacement occurred as his body settled and mummified following his death, making it difficult to identify through earlier examinations. The organ was found to be full, containing an undigested meal that provided a snapshot of his last hours. The preservation of the stomach contents allowed scientists to perform advanced analyses, offering a unique window into Copper Age dietary habits.
Scientific Techniques Used for Identifying Contents
Analyzing the stomach contents was difficult because the food was highly degraded and compacted. To overcome this, researchers employed a “multi-omics” approach, combining several analytical methods. One primary technique was ancient DNA sequencing, which allowed scientists to precisely identify the species of animals and plants consumed.
Proteomic and lipid analyses were also performed, targeting the proteins and fatty acids. Lipid analysis was crucial for determining the source of the high amount of animal fat found in the meal. Microscopic analysis complemented these techniques by examining plant matter and muscle fibers, helping to determine the type of grain and how the meat was prepared. This combination of advanced forensic methods provided a detailed reconstruction of the meal that would have been impossible with traditional archaeological techniques alone.
The Specific Components of Otzi’s Final Meal
Analysis confirmed that Ötzi consumed a high-energy meal consisting of a mix of protein, carbohydrates, and a large proportion of fat. The main protein source was wild game, specifically the meat and fat of the Alpine ibex. Ibex fat accounted for nearly half (46 percent) of the total stomach contents.
Traces of red deer meat were also identified, indicating he consumed at least two wild animal species. The carbohydrate component of the meal consisted of cereals from einkorn wheat, an ancient grain. Muscle fibers retained their original striations, suggesting the meat had been dried or cured rather than cooked at high temperatures. A finding was the presence of traces from the toxic bracken fern.
What the Meal Reveals About His Final Hours
The high-fat, high-calorie meal suggests Ötzi was preparing for strenuous activity in the high-altitude terrain. The large proportion of ibex fat would have provided the sustained energy necessary for trekking or hunting. This high-fat diet aligns with the demands of his surroundings, where maintaining body heat and energy reserves was necessary.
The meal’s undigested state indicates that Ötzi ate it between 30 minutes and two hours before his death. The presence of toxic bracken fern remains a mystery; it may have been ingested accidentally, perhaps by using the leaves to wrap food, or possibly consumed intentionally. Some indigenous groups historically used bracken as a folk medicine, and Ötzi was known to have intestinal parasites, suggesting a possible attempt at self-medication. The final meal paints a picture of a man who was well-provisioned, but who was ambushed and killed shortly after stopping to replenish his energy reserves.