Dentures in the 1700s were made primarily from ivory and human teeth, often combined into a single device. The base of most 18th-century dentures was carved from a solid block of hippopotamus, walrus, or elephant ivory, and the teeth set into that base came from a mix of sources: real human teeth, animal teeth (likely from cows and horses), and occasionally carved ivory as well. These materials were far from ideal, deteriorating quickly inside the mouth and producing a notoriously foul smell.
Ivory: The Standard Base Material
The foundation of most 1700s dentures was a piece of ivory shaped to fit the wearer’s mouth. Hippo ivory was especially common because of its density, but walrus and elephant ivory were also used. Craftsmen carved these blocks by hand to approximate the curve of the jaw, then drilled small holes or slots where individual teeth could be riveted in.
The problem was that ivory is porous. Saliva, food particles, and oral acids seeped into the material over time, causing it to stain, soften, and rot. Wearers described their dentures turning brown or greenish and giving off a terrible odor. Ivory bases were also uncomfortable and difficult to hold in place, since there was no reliable adhesive. Some sets used metal springs, often made of silver or gold wire, that pressed against the opposing jaw to keep the dentures seated. These springs could make the mouth sore and required constant muscular effort to keep closed.
Human Teeth in Dentures
Real human teeth were the most desirable material for the visible part of a denture, because they looked natural and held up better than carved ivory. But sourcing them was grim. There were three main pipelines: teeth pulled from living donors (usually poor people paid a small sum), teeth extracted from corpses by grave robbers, and teeth harvested from battlefields.
A 1787 cartoon by Thomas Rowlandson depicts the teeth of London’s poorest residents being yanked out for the benefit of wealthier dental patients. A 1792 newspaper advertisement specifically called for “foreign teeth” to be riveted into ivory denture bases. The supply from live donors and grave robbers was limited, though, which made battlefield scavenging enormously valuable. The most famous example came slightly after the 1700s, at the 1815 Battle of Waterloo, where tens of thousands of soldiers lay dead in a single location. Surviving troops, locals, and scavengers who had traveled from Britain pulled teeth from the dead with pliers. The teeth were sorted and strung up for sale, then sold to dental technicians who boiled them, trimmed the roots, and shaped them to fit ivory bases. Front teeth were preferred because they were easier to extract and required less reshaping. These became known as “Waterloo teeth,” and the term stuck as a general label for dentures made with human teeth.
The practice of using human teeth predated Waterloo by decades. Throughout the 1700s, any large-scale source of recently dead bodies presented the same opportunity. The teeth were riveted directly into the ivory base, creating a hybrid device that combined a carved foundation with a natural-looking biting surface.
Animal Teeth and Metal Alloys
When human teeth weren’t available, animal teeth filled the gap. Cow and horse teeth were common substitutes, though they didn’t match the size or shape of human teeth as convincingly. George Washington’s dentures are the best-documented example of 18th-century dental work, and they reveal just how many materials a single set could contain. His various dentures over the years incorporated human teeth, probable cow and horse teeth, elephant ivory, lead-tin alloy, copper alloy (possibly brass), and silver alloy. Contrary to the persistent myth, none of Washington’s dentures contained wood. The misconception likely arose because stained ivory can take on a dark, grainy appearance that resembles wood.
Metal components served structural purposes. Lead and tin alloys formed parts of the base or connectors, while silver and brass wire created the spring mechanisms that held upper and lower pieces in tension against each other. Gold was occasionally used for wealthier patients, both for its durability and because it was less reactive in the mouth than other metals.
Who Actually Made Them
Dentistry as a formal profession barely existed in the 1700s. The people crafting dentures were skilled tradesmen from other fields: ivory turners who already knew how to carve and shape tusk material, goldsmiths who could work with fine metals and small fittings, and barber-surgeons who handled tooth extractions and basic oral care. A single set of dentures might pass through several of these craftsmen before reaching the patient. The ivory turner carved the base, the goldsmith fabricated the springs and wires, and the barber-surgeon fitted the device and made adjustments.
This was expensive work, and dentures were firmly a luxury for the wealthy. Poor people were more likely to be selling their teeth than buying replacements. The entire economy of 18th-century dentures ran on this inequality: teeth moved from the mouths of the poor and the dead into the mouths of the rich.
The Arrival of Porcelain
Near the end of the century, a French pharmacist named Alexis Duchateau had the idea of replacing the smelly hippopotamus ivory base with porcelain. He collaborated with Nicolas Dubois de Chémant, a surgeon, to develop a workable version. De Chémant received a French patent in 1791 and later fled to England during the French Revolution, where he secured a second royal patent and published detailed instructions for the fabrication process in 1797.
Porcelain solved the odor and decay problems of ivory because it was non-porous and didn’t absorb saliva or bacteria. But early porcelain dentures were brittle and prone to chipping, which limited their popularity. They also had an unnaturally white, glossy appearance that made them obvious. It would take several more decades of refinement before porcelain became the dominant material in the 1800s, eventually replacing ivory and human teeth entirely.
What Wearing Them Was Like
By modern standards, 18th-century dentures were barely functional. Ivory bases warped and deteriorated in the warm, wet environment of the mouth. Both the ivory and the human teeth set into it broke down over time. Metal springs pressing against the gums caused sores, and the poor fit meant dentures shifted during eating and speaking. Washington himself was famously miserable with his dentures and went through multiple sets.
Hygiene was a constant battle. The porous ivory absorbed everything it came into contact with, producing a smell that no amount of cleaning could fully remove. This was, in fact, one of the main motivations behind the push toward porcelain at the end of the century. De Chémant specifically marketed his mineral-paste teeth as an alternative to the “smelly dentures” that ivory wearers endured. For most of the 1700s, though, ivory and human teeth were simply what was available, and people who could afford dentures accepted the trade-offs.