Throughout history, makeup was made from whatever people could mine, grow, or harvest from animals. The ingredients ranged from crushed minerals and insect-derived dyes to lead powders, animal fats, and plant oils. Many of these substances were genuinely toxic, and people used them for centuries before safer alternatives emerged. Here’s what went into cosmetics across the major historical periods.
Ancient Egyptian Kohl and Eye Paint
The most iconic cosmetic of the ancient world was kohl, the dark pigment Egyptians applied around their eyes. For decades, researchers assumed kohl was almost entirely lead-based, and chemical analysis of 87 historical samples confirmed that 85 of them contained lead minerals as the main ingredient. The primary lead compound was galena, a naturally occurring lead sulfide that produces a dark, metallic finish.
But a 2022 study published in Scientific Reports revealed that Egyptian kohl recipes were far more diverse than previously thought. Researchers identified eight minerals never before found in kohl, including biotite (a silicate mineral), hematite (an iron oxide that gives a reddish tint), and talc. Some samples were manganese-based or silicon-based rather than lead-based, and six specimens turned out to be primarily carbon-based, likely made from soot or charcoal rather than crushed minerals at all.
Egyptians didn’t just use dry powder. Chemical analysis showed that plant oils were commonly mixed in as binders, along with animal fats, tree resins, waxes, and gums. Beeswax was especially versatile. Analysis of an Egyptian wig from around 1400 BC found a coating made of roughly two-thirds beeswax and one-third resin. For green eye paint, Egyptians ground malachite, a copper-based mineral, into a fine powder and blended it with fat to make an ointment or with water to make a paste.
Red Pigments From Insects and Minerals
Getting a convincing red color was one of the biggest challenges in historical cosmetics. Ancient Romans achieved rosy cheeks by applying cinnabar (a mercury sulfide mineral) and red lead directly to the skin. Both are highly toxic.
A more creative solution came from the cochineal insect. The Aztecs began harvesting these tiny scale insects as early as the 10th century, crushing them to extract a vivid crimson pigment called carmine. After the Spanish colonization of the Americas, cochineal became a monopolized export, prized across Europe for textiles, food, and cosmetics. Carmine is still used today in lipsticks and blushes. Other natural red pigments included ochres and iron oxides, which were among the earliest colorants humans ever used.
Greek and Roman Skin Whitening
Pale skin was the beauty ideal in ancient Greece and Rome, and the lengths people went to achieve it were extreme. Greek women made facial powder from a mixture of white lead, animal urine, eggs, sulfur, vinegar, poultry fat, and excrement. White lead was the active whitening agent, and it was applied liberally.
Romans continued the tradition, using white lead in face paints and creams. They also used belladonna, or deadly nightshade, to dilate their pupils. The plant contains atropine, which relaxes the muscles in the eye and makes the pupils appear larger and darker. Optometrists still use regulated doses of atropine for eye exams today, but in the ancient world, women simply dropped raw plant extract directly into their eyes.
Elizabethan Ceruse and Tudor Toxins
The most famous cosmetic of the Elizabethan era was Venetian ceruse, a thick white face paint that gave women the porcelain complexion fashionable at Queen Elizabeth I’s court. A recipe from 1688 describes it as a mixture of water, vinegar, and lead. Women applied it in layers, sometimes over smallpox scars or other blemishes, creating a smooth, mask-like appearance.
The lead in ceruse accumulated in the body with every application. Over time, it caused muscle paralysis, chronic illness, and in some cases death. The cruel irony was that lead-based makeup damaged the skin underneath, which drove women to apply even more of it to cover the worsening damage.
Victorian “Natural” Beauty and Hidden Poisons
Victorian culture prized a “natural” look, which meant visible makeup fell out of fashion. But that didn’t mean women stopped using dangerous products. They simply rebranded them as health aids and skin treatments.
Mercury compounds were widely recommended for skin problems. An 1866 reference book suggested bichloride of mercury for acne, discoloration, and even “scabby eruptions of the lips.” An 1874 Harper’s Bazaar article advised rubbing a mercury-based ointment mixed with lard along the edges of the eyelids to regrow lost eyelashes. Arsenic was sold in edible form: Dr. Campbell’s “safe” arsenical complexion wafers were meant to be swallowed, promising clearer skin from the inside out. These products continued to be sold into the 20th century.
Lead-based paints persisted throughout the Victorian period as well. A popular lotion called Laird’s Bloom of Youth, widely used in the 1860s, was eventually found to be heavily impregnated with acetate and carbonate of lead. It was linked to lead palsy, a form of localized paralysis. As late as 1922, the Journal of the American Medical Association published the case of a woman suffering constant tremors, nausea, and vomiting from a toilet cream she had used for 12 years, which turned out to contain high levels of lead.
Common Bases and Binders Across Eras
Regardless of the era, cosmetics needed something to hold pigments together and make them stick to skin. The solutions were remarkably consistent across thousands of years. Animal fats from oxen, sheep, and fowl were ground with mineral pigments to create ointments and pastes. Olive oil and almond oil served the same purpose and also acted as moisturizers. Beeswax provided structure and staying power.
Perfumes and scenting agents were fat-based for most of history, since distillation techniques weren’t developed until much later. Fragrant plant oils were dissolved into animal fats, which absorb and hold scent molecules well. Tree resins added both fragrance and texture. Even nail polish had organic roots: early formulations combined beeswax, egg whites, and gelatin with orchid or rose extracts.
The Shift to Safer Ingredients
The transition away from toxic cosmetics happened slowly. By the 19th century, zinc oxide began replacing lead compounds as a facial powder. It provided similar whitening and smoothing effects without accumulating in the body. Lead-based products were also gradually replaced by pearl white and talc by the early 1900s.
The commercial cosmetics industry as we know it began its real growth in the early 20th century, driven partly by the availability of these safer mineral alternatives and partly by new petroleum-based ingredients that could serve as stable, consistent bases for mass-produced products. The trail of mysterious illnesses and deaths from lead-filled creams and powders finally began to fade, though not before centuries of damage.