Female genital mutilation (FGM) most likely originated in the Nile Valley region of northeastern Africa, in or around ancient Egypt, though no single origin point has been proven definitively. The practice was already well established by the time Greek historians began documenting it more than 2,000 years ago, and it predates all major monotheistic religions including Islam and Christianity.
The Earliest Evidence Points to Ancient Egypt
The strongest historical thread traces FGM to ancient Egypt during the era of the Pharaohs. Its prevalence along the Nile Valley during this period is the main reason scholars have proposed Egypt as the source country. A papyrus from Ptolemaic Memphis (the Greek-ruled period of Egypt, roughly 305 to 30 BC) contains a direct reference to female circumcision, making it one of the earliest written records of the practice.
Greek geographers and historians provide additional early documentation. Herodotus, writing in the fifth century BC, described circumcision customs among the Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Colchians (people from the eastern Black Sea coast). Strabo, who lived from roughly 64 BC to 23 AD, described genital cutting among Egyptians and the Troglodytes, communities living along the Red Sea coast. Hellenistic ethnographers of the same era also documented both male and female genital cutting in these regions. By the time these writers recorded what they observed, the practice was clearly not new. It had deep roots in the cultures they were describing.
Why the True Origin Remains Uncertain
While Egypt is the leading candidate, scholars have not reached a firm consensus. The practice may have developed independently in multiple communities across northeastern Africa rather than spreading outward from a single point. Written records from this era are sparse, and the cultures practicing FGM were mostly oral societies that left no documentation of their own. What survives are outside observations, primarily from Greek writers, which means the historical picture is incomplete.
One point of broad scholarly agreement: FGM did not originate as a religious obligation. It predates Islam by centuries and has no basis in the Quran. It also predates Christianity’s spread into Africa. The practice was later absorbed into local religious frameworks in some communities, with practitioners in certain regions citing Islamic or Christian teachings as justification, but these are cultural reinterpretations rather than doctrinal requirements.
Why the Practice Persisted and Spread
Understanding FGM’s origins also means understanding the social forces that kept it alive across millennia. The practice became deeply embedded in community identity, serving as a rite of passage from girlhood to womanhood. During these ceremonies, girls were taught about their roles and responsibilities as women, mothers, and wives. The physical cutting served as proof that a girl had received these teachings and was worthy of belonging to her community.
Over time, FGM became intertwined with ideas about cleanliness, femininity, beauty, purity, and family honor. In many practicing communities, it was seen as a prerequisite for marriage. Families who did not have their daughters cut risked social exclusion. Avoiding discrimination remains one of the most powerful forces perpetuating the practice today, with peer pressure playing a major role. Recent research has found that in some communities, the physical cutting is increasingly separated from the traditional ritual ceremony, suggesting the social signaling function (proving group membership and accessing social networks) may matter more than the cultural teachings that once accompanied it.
Men and women in practicing communities often cite different justifications. Women tend to emphasize deep cultural tradition, while men more frequently frame it as a religious obligation or a way to reduce women’s sexual desire, linking it to family honor. Both perspectives reflect how the practice has been maintained through overlapping social pressures rather than a single rationale.
Where FGM Is Practiced Today
More than 230 million girls and women alive today have undergone FGM, according to UNICEF’s most recent data. That figure represents a 30 million increase compared to estimates from eight years earlier, driven largely by population growth in practicing regions.
Africa carries the largest share, with over 144 million cases concentrated across a belt of countries in western, eastern, and northeastern Africa. Asia accounts for over 80 million cases, with Indonesia and the Maldives among the countries where national surveys have documented the practice. Indonesia’s 2013 national health survey found a prevalence of about 51 percent. The Middle East accounts for over 6 million cases. FGM also exists in smaller, isolated communities and among diaspora populations in Europe, North America, and Australia.
What FGM Involves
The World Health Organization classifies FGM into four types. Type I involves partial or total removal of the clitoral hood or clitoral tissue. Type II involves partial or total removal of the clitoris and the inner labia, sometimes including the outer labia. Type III, often called infibulation, is the most severe form: the vaginal opening is narrowed by cutting and repositioning the labia to create a covering seal. Type IV covers all other harmful procedures to the genitalia for non-medical purposes, including pricking, piercing, scraping, and cauterization.
All types carry health risks. In the short term, the cutting causes severe pain, and because it is often performed without anesthesia or sterile instruments, it can lead to hemorrhage, shock, infection, and in some cases death from blood loss or tetanus. Many women describe the experience as deeply traumatic, particularly because it is typically carried out or sanctioned by family members.
Long-term consequences affect women throughout their lives. These include chronic pain from nerve damage and scarring, recurring genital infections, painful menstruation (especially with Type III, where menstrual blood cannot pass easily), and sexual health problems such as decreased sensation, pain during intercourse, and reduced lubrication. During childbirth, women who have undergone FGM face higher rates of cesarean section, prolonged labor, obstetric tears, and postpartum hemorrhage. Psychological effects include elevated rates of PTSD, anxiety disorders, and depression.
Legal Efforts to End the Practice
International legal frameworks targeting FGM have grown significantly in recent decades. The United Nations has called for the elimination of FGM through multiple resolutions and conventions, including the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. The African Union’s Maputo Protocol specifically protects African women’s rights from harmful practices.
At the national level, many countries where FGM is prevalent have enacted bans. The Gambia’s experience illustrates how contested these laws can be. In 2015, the country passed the Women’s Amendment Act banning FGM. In 2024, the Gambian parliament considered repealing the ban but ultimately voted to keep it in place, a decision the WHO called a critical win for girls’ and women’s rights. Legal bans alone have not eliminated the practice in any country, but they represent one piece of a broader strategy that includes community education and engagement with local leaders.