The materials inside an electric car battery are mined and processed across a surprisingly wide network of countries, with a handful dominating each mineral. A typical lithium-ion battery contains lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and graphite, and each of these comes from a different part of the world before converging in processing plants, mostly in China, to become the cells that power your car.
Lithium: Australia and South America Lead
Lithium is the mineral most associated with EVs, and global production hit roughly 180,000 tons in 2023, a 23% jump from the year before. Australia is by far the largest producer, mining about 86,000 tons in 2023 from hard-rock spodumene deposits. Chile came second at 44,000 tons, followed by China at 33,000 tons. Argentina produced about 9,600 tons, with smaller contributions from Brazil, Canada, and Zimbabwe.
Australia’s lithium comes from conventional open-pit mines in Western Australia. Chile and Argentina extract theirs differently, pumping lithium-rich brine from underground reservoirs beneath salt flats and letting it evaporate in large pools. This process uses enormous amounts of water in some of the driest places on Earth, which has drawn criticism from local communities and environmental groups. China operates both types of extraction, mining hard rock in some provinces and tapping brine deposits in others.
Cobalt: Concentrated in the Congo
Cobalt is used in many battery types to stabilize the structure of the cathode, the part of the battery that stores and releases energy. The Democratic Republic of Congo accounts for 74% of global cobalt mine production, making it one of the most geographically concentrated supply chains of any major commodity.
Large-scale industrial mines operated by multinational companies produce most of the DRC’s cobalt, but a significant share comes from artisanal and small-scale mining operations. These smaller mines have been repeatedly linked to dangerous working conditions, child labor, and environmental contamination. The concentration of cobalt in a single country with weak regulatory enforcement has pushed several automakers to reduce the amount of cobalt in their batteries or switch to cobalt-free chemistries like lithium iron phosphate (LFP).
Nickel: Indonesia’s Growing Role
Nickel helps increase a battery’s energy density, letting cars travel farther on a single charge. Indonesia is the world’s largest nickel miner, and it’s working to become a major player in the EV supply chain specifically. The challenge is that most of Indonesia’s nickel output is low-purity “Class 2” nickel, which is fine for stainless steel but not for batteries. Battery cathodes require high-purity Class 1 nickel containing at least 99.8% nickel.
To bridge that gap, companies in Indonesia are investing in new processing techniques. Some use high-pressure acid leaching to convert laterite ore directly into battery-grade material. Others take a two-step approach, first producing an intermediate product called nickel matte, then refining it further. These processes work, but they’re energy-intensive and generate significant waste, including acidic tailings that pose risks to surrounding ecosystems. The Philippines, Russia, and New Caledonia also contribute meaningful nickel production.
Graphite: China’s Near-Monopoly
While lithium and cobalt get most of the attention, graphite makes up the largest share of a battery’s weight. It forms the anode, the other electrode that absorbs lithium ions when the battery charges. Battery anodes use a blend of natural and synthetic graphite, with synthetic typically accounting for 75% to 90% of the material.
For the natural graphite portion, China dominates both reserves and production. Global reserves are concentrated in China (28%) and Brazil (26%), but China alone accounts for 73% of actual production. Mozambique and Madagascar contribute smaller shares, around 6% and 4% respectively. Synthetic graphite is manufactured from petroleum coke in high-temperature furnaces, and China controls much of that capacity as well.
Manganese: From South Africa and Gabon
Manganese plays a supporting role in many battery chemistries, helping improve stability and reduce the need for cobalt. Nearly three-quarters of global manganese mine production comes from just three countries: South Africa (37%), Gabon (23%), and Australia (14%). When it comes to exports, the concentration is even tighter. South Africa and Gabon together accounted for 87% of global manganese ore exports by value between 2022 and 2024.
China Controls the Refining Step
Even when raw materials are mined in Australia, the Congo, or Chile, they rarely go straight into a battery. Most pass through China for processing and refining. China processes over 90% of the world’s graphite, and Chinese companies handle more than two-thirds of global cobalt and lithium processing capacity. This means that even countries with abundant mineral deposits often ship raw ore to China, where it gets converted into the chemical compounds that battery factories actually use.
This concentration creates a bottleneck that many governments view as a strategic vulnerability. If trade disruptions or export restrictions cut off access to Chinese processing, battery production worldwide could slow significantly, regardless of where the raw minerals were mined.
How the U.S. Is Trying to Diversify
The Inflation Reduction Act, passed in 2022, ties EV tax credits directly to where battery materials are sourced. To qualify for the full $7,500 credit, a vehicle must meet two requirements: one for where the battery is assembled, and one for where the critical minerals come from. For 2025, at least 60% of the value of the critical minerals in the battery must be extracted or processed in the United States or a country with a free trade agreement, or recycled in North America. That threshold rises to 70% in 2026.
This policy is pushing automakers and mining companies to build new supply chains outside of China. Projects are underway across the U.S., Canada, Australia, and parts of South America. One closely watched effort involves extracting lithium from geothermal brines beneath California’s Salton Sea. A proposed plant there could produce around 15,000 metric tons per year of battery-grade lithium carbonate, using hot brine that’s already being pumped to generate geothermal electricity. The concept is appealing because it avoids the open-pit mining and evaporation ponds used elsewhere. But the economics remain difficult. Estimates suggest the Salton Sea approach would currently operate at a loss of about $4,000 per ton, compared to a $2,000-per-ton profit margin at a conventional lithium mine like Thacker Pass in Nevada, which is already under construction.
Recycling as a Future Source
As the first generation of EV batteries reaches the end of its life, recycling is becoming a meaningful source of raw materials. Modeling research suggests that if collection and recycling rates reach high levels, recycled cobalt and nickel could eventually replace over 66% of new mining demand for those metals. Recycled lithium could offset up to 69% of virgin lithium production in some scenarios, though at least 20% of lithium demand would likely still require fresh mining even under optimistic assumptions.
In practice, current recycling rates fall well short of those projections. Depending on the recycling method used, real-world recovery of lithium, cobalt, and nickel can be 11% to 100% lower than ideal estimates. Some methods don’t recover lithium at all because it isn’t economically worthwhile at current prices. Still, as battery volumes grow and regulations tighten, recycling infrastructure is scaling up quickly in China, Europe, and North America.
What’s Actually in Your Battery
The exact mix of materials depends on the battery chemistry your car uses. Vehicles with NMC (nickel-manganese-cobalt) cathodes need all five major minerals and tend to rely more heavily on the DRC and Indonesia. Cars with LFP (lithium iron phosphate) batteries skip cobalt and nickel entirely, using iron instead, which is abundant and cheap. LFP batteries are becoming increasingly common in more affordable EVs, partly because they sidestep the most ethically and geopolitically fraught supply chains.
Regardless of chemistry, every EV battery still needs lithium and graphite, keeping Australia, Chile, and China central to the supply chain for the foreseeable future.