Vanadium (V) is a silvery-gray, ductile transition metal with an atomic number of 23, and its primary function in modern industry is to create superior steel alloys. The addition of vanadium, often less than 0.1% by weight, significantly increases the strength and toughness of steel, making it widely used in high-speed tools, axles, and construction girders. Beyond its role in steelmaking, vanadium is increasingly important in energy storage, particularly in large-scale Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries (VRFBs) used for grid-level storage of renewable energy. Understanding the global distribution of this metal is therefore central to supply chain security and the future of advanced manufacturing and green energy technology.
Primary Mineral and Ore Deposits
The vast majority of the world’s vanadium is extracted from a specific type of iron ore deposit known as vanadiferous titanomagnetite (VTM). These deposits are formed through magmatic processes, typically associated with large, layered mafic-ultramafic igneous intrusions. The VTM mineral itself is a variety of magnetite that has been enriched with vanadium, which substitutes into the crystal lattice of the magnetite. The concentration of vanadium pentoxide (\(V_{2}O_{5}\)) in these primary ore bodies typically ranges from 0.2 to 1 weight percent. Mining these deposits involves extracting the iron ore, with the vanadium often recovered as a co-product or a byproduct during the iron and steel refining process.
Global Distribution of Reserves and Production
Vanadium resources are geographically concentrated in a few major regions, with a significant portion of current production derived from the processing of steel slag from iron ore rich in the metal. China is the world’s top vanadium-producing country, often accounting for over 60% of the annual global output, primarily from the processing of titanomagnetite ore. Following China, Russia and South Africa are the other primary global producers, with their output largely tied to immense titanomagnetite deposits. Brazil is also a significant producer and a major global exporter. While Australia holds some of the largest reported vanadium reserves in the world, its current production volume is generally lower than the top four countries. These major producers are all largely extracting vanadium from large iron ore bodies, which underscores the close tie between global vanadium and iron ore markets.
Vanadium in Sedimentary Rocks and Fossil Fuels
Vanadium is found as a trace element in various sedimentary rocks and carbonaceous materials, which serve as important secondary sources for recovery. High concentrations of vanadium occur in crude oil, particularly heavy crude and bitumen, where it is often associated with organic compounds. When this oil is combusted or refined, the vanadium concentrates in the resulting ash, flue dust, or petroleum coke. Another source is vanadium-rich black shales, which are marine sedimentary rocks that represent a vast future resource. Small amounts of vanadium are also produced as a co-product from some sandstone-hosted uranium-vanadium deposits. Recovery from all these non-traditional sources involves extracting the metal as a byproduct of petroleum refining, or from the processing of other mineral commodities.